4
Porcelain enamel is bonded to steel or cast
iron fixtures by fusion at a temperature above
800°F (427°C). Porcelain enamel is sometimes
referred to as “glass lining” or vitreous enamel.
Alloy sheet steels for plumbing fixtures
such as lavatories, sinks, and bathtubs are
formed economically using a stamping pro-
cess. Such fixtures are generally less expensive
and less durable than those made of cast iron.
Gray iron is ideally suited for plumbing
fixtures. It is low in cost and can be cast in a
wide variety of shapes. Plumbing fixtures such
as bathtubs, sinks, and lavatories are
frequently cast in gray iron. Porcelain enamels
are fused to the gray iron to provide a glossy,
decorative, protective, and sanitary coating.
Stainless steel is durable and has a good
surface finish. These are two characteristics
necessary in plumbing fixtures. Stainless steel
is a nickel-steel alloy that has a silver, satin-like
finish. No additional coating is required to
produce a sanitary, easily cleaned surface.
Unlike enameled surfaces, stainless steel does
not chip. However, because of the difficulty in
forming stainless steel, it is primarily used to
make simpler fixtures (such as kitchen sinks).
Plastics are the most recent material to be
used for plumbing fixtures. Versatile and rela-
tively low cost, they can be shaped to form
nearly any fixture. One-piece construction,
including fixtures and adjoining walls for bath-
tubs and showers, is possible using fiberglass-
reinforced plastic. Acrylic plastic sheets with
marbleized colors are also used in lavatories.
Plastic fixtures are attractive and superior to
marble fixtures because the plastic does not
absorb water.
Lavatories and Sinks
Lavatories are designed to be installed in
bathrooms and other locations for washing
hands and faces. Sinks are designed for use
during food preparation and dishwashing. The
size and shape of lavatories differ from sinks
because of the differences in their uses.
However, the installation procedures required
are similar.
Lavatories and sinks fall into five basic
categories:
• One-piece molded type, Figure 13-1.
• Ledge type, Figure 13-2.
• Self-rimming type, Figure 13-3.
• Built-in with metal rim, Figure 13-4.
• Pedestal designs have a single supporting
leg, Figure 13-5.
Each is available in a variety of shapes and
styles. For example, a ledge-type corner lava-
tory, shown in Figure 13-6, may be desirable
where space is limited. A bar sink generally has
200
Section 2 Plumbing Systems
Building codes require that all dwelling units
be equipped with toilet facilities that include a
water closet, lavatory, and bathtub or shower.
In 1829, the Tremont Hotel in Boston was
the first U.S. hotel to have indoor plumbing.
Code Notes
Figure 13-1. One-piece molded countertop sinks are
available in a variety of styles. (Kohler Co.)
Porcelain: Ceramic material made of kaolin (fine
clay), quartz, and feldspar; used for bathroom
fixtures.
Vitreous enamel: Material that is bonded to steel or
cast iron fixtures by fusion at a temperature above
800°F (427°C).
Stainless steel: Material that is durable and has a
good surface finish that does not chip. Primarily used
to make simpler fixtures (such as kitchen sinks).
Plastics: Material that is versatile and can be shaped
to form nearly any fixture.
Lavatory: A fixture designed for washing hands and
faces.
Sink: A fixture designed for use during food prepara-
tion and dishwashing.
Objectives
This unit introduces the builder’s level and the
laser level. Plumbers use these two precision
instruments to transfer heights accurately over
long distances.
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
• Explain the operation of the builder’s level
and the laser level.
• Use leveling instruments to find levels and
properly slope drainage pipe.
Technical Terms
When a leveling job becomes too large for a
level, straightedge, chalk line, or square, a
different instrument must be used to maintain
accuracy. Optical leveling instruments are
designed for leveling over long distances. They
operate on the principle that a line of sight is
always straight; it does not dip, sag, or curve. If
the line of sight is level, all points along the line
are the same height. Measurements can then be
made relative to the line of sight.
Builder’s Level
The builder’s level, or surveyor’s level,
mounts on a tripod and is used to check level
and measure angles on the horizontal plane. It
can be swung 360° to the left or right, but does
not move from the horizontal position.
The builder’s level is very useful when
installing sewer and septic tank lines. Since it
can locate distant points that are level, it may
Leveling
Instruments
3
79
Builder’s level
Surveyor’s level
Base plate
Leveling screws
Horizontal motion
screw
Horizontal motion
tangent screw
Eyepiece
Eyepiece focus
Telescope
Telescope focus knob
Telescope level
Horizontal circle
vernier
Stadia rod
Rod
The earliest American-made surveyor’s
level in the Smithsonian collection was made
by Benjamin Rittenhouse about 1785. The
level was owned by the chief surveyor of the
Potowmack Canal Company, George Gilpin,
and probably used during the construction of
canals designed to improve navigation on the
Potomac River.
History Brief
Builder’s level: Also called surveyor’s level, this tool
mounts on a tripod and is used to check level and
measure angles on the horizontal plane.
Objectives. Provide an overview of the
chapter content and explain what should be
understood upon completion of the chapter.
Technical Terms. List of important technical
terms introduced in the chapter. The terms in this
list appear in bold-italic type when they first
appear in the chapter.
Running Glossary. Provides definitions of
the important technical terms introduced on the
page. It reinforces the terminology plumbers will
encounter on the job.
Code Notes. Call attention to plumbing code
requirements. Where possible, these notes relate
directly to the content of the chapter. Since plumb-
ing codes may vary from one locale to another,
Code Notes do not cite a particular code. Instead,
they suggest the type of requirements that may be
found in the locally applicable code. It is essential
that you refer to your local code to determine the
requirements in your area.
History Briefs. Provide background informa-
tion and help build an appreciation for the develop-
ment of plumbing and the plumbing trade. This
feature will help you gain greater perspective and
understand the importance of plumbing to our
health and safety.
Modern Plumbing
Chapter Components