Encourages Exploration of
Chapter Topics
Chapter 8
Middle Childhood: Ages 6 through 10
199
Children can often be exposed to negative images and messages. Without
more sophisticated problem-solving skills, children are vulnerable. Parents and
caregivers should talk to children about the dangers and limit media exposure
based on their personal values and standards. Parents may also preview movies,
shows, or websites before their children watch or visit them to determine if the
content is appropriate. Caregivers may also choose to watch shows with children
or to monitor computer time. If any questionable topics come up or if children
have questions, parents are there for a teachable moment.
Cultural background influences the family unit,
especially children within the unit.
Culture
includes
holidays, food customs, religions, and traditions. A
country’s holidays can include all of these aspects
and convey a value to children and the rest of society.
For example, Thanksgiving in the United States is a
family holiday where members share a meal, family
time, and mention for what they are grateful. Other
countries have holidays unique to their culture, which
also communicate values. In Israel, students do not
attend classes for Rosh Hashanah to celeb
rate the
New Year. In Uruguay, Constitution Day is a national
holiday celebrating the first constitution, which
influences the government and people.
Research Activity
Select three other countries and research one
holiday from each country. Is there a U.S. holiday
similar to this holiday? Which values are represented
by each holiday?
Cultural Connections
Promoting
Cultural
Diversity Promoting Cultural Diversity
C C
Cu Cu l l lt ur
l al
C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
Checkpoint
1. According to Erikson, which socio-emotional tasks do children in middle
childhood need to solve?
2. Describe relationships with family members during middle childhood.
3. Describe relationships with peers during middle childhood.
4. What is bullying? Give an example.
5. List three ways children might handle a stressful situation.
Special Needs
Children between the ages of 6 through 10 continue to reach new physical,
cognitive, and socio-emotional developmental milestones,
8-28. During this time,
special needs become more visible as milestones are either missed or delayed.
Many screenings are available during middle childhood. For example, hear-
ing tests are usually administered at the ages of 6, 8, and 10 to detect hearing
problems that may have developed after birth or early childhood. Vision
reading tests are other common screenings administered during this
time.andmay
Vision problems that often become more obvious during middle childhood
include hyperopia and myopia.
Hyperopia
, or farsightedness, is an eye condition
that results in difficulty seeing objects that are near.
Myopia
, or nearsightedness, is a
condition that results in difficulty seeing objects that are far away. Signs that a child
may have a vision problem include holding a book too close or too far away, squint-
ing, showing light sensitivity, or complaining of headaches and dizziness.
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Chapter 6
Toddlerhood: Ages 1 through 2
123
During the toddler years, more
teeth develop. By the time toddlers
reach their second birthday, most
have all of their primary teeth with
the exception of their second molars.
This changes the look of their smile
and facial features.
Motor Skills
During the toddler years, chil-
dren learn many new gross- and
fine-motor skills. At the beginning of
the toddler years, toddlers are often
just learning how to take a few hesi-
tant steps without support. Through-
out the toddler years, they learn to
walk quickly,
6-2. Toddlers also learn
to pull a toy on a string, run for short
distances, kick, throw, walk back-
ward, and climb stairs more easily.
As toddlers explore their world, they
move constantly. They fall and get
back up many times an hour. Care-
givers should provide a safe envi-
ronment, but encourage this active
exploration as much as possible.
Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock.com
6-2
The term
toddler
refers to the way children “toddle” as
they walk during this stage.
Safety
Connections
Childproofing, or the process of
ensuring a home is safe for children, is
especially important for toddlers. During
the toddler stage, toddlers are walking
and exploring their world. They may grab
on to furniture or loose items to help
them balance. They are also curious and
have enough fine- and gross-motor skills
to open cabinets and get into bottles
or liquids that may be harmful to the
skin or even poisonous. Monitoring the
movement of toddlers is always important
and necessary. The following guidelines
can help you childproof a home and make
watching toddlers somewhat less stressful.
• Place sharp objects out of reach.
• Keep windows closed or open
windows slightly and lock in place.
• Ensure medicine, kitchen, and other
cabinets have childproof locks.
• Use outlet and power strip covers.
• Install child protection gates at tops
and bottoms of staircases.
• Keep up-to-date on new safety
regulations and product recalls for
items such as cribs or certified child
safety seats.
Writing Activity
What other precautions could you take
to ensure the safety of a toddler? Expand
these guidelines by adding five more
childproofing tips. Then inspect your home
for child safety and write an action plan to
address any safety concerns you noticed
during your inspection.
Childproofing
gh 2
123
Chapter
12
Older Adulthood: Age 66 Plus
291
often sag. Muscle loss also affects range of motion, and movements become
slower. Physical activities such as strengthening exercises can slow this process,
improving both physical appearance and abilities. Other signs of aging cannot be seen externally. Internal body organs age and
lose some efficiency of their function. The brain shrinks and pulls away from the
skull. Blood flow to the brain decreases. As the heart’s capacity decreases and
blood vessels harden, the heart might have to pump harder to get blood to other
organs. Lungs have a lower air capacity. The digestive system slows, often result-
ing in constipation.
Incontinence
, which is involuntary urination or defecation,
may occur as health problems increase. Although these changes are normal, some
happen faster for those who live sedentary lifestyles.
Changes in Sensory Skills Sensory changes from middle adulthood continue throughout older adult-
hood,
12-1.
Presbyopia
, a slow decrease in the ability to focus on nearby objects,
progressively worsens. The ability to adjust from light to darkness, from low
glare to high glare, and to see objects in the side view becomes more challenging.
Other vision conditions often develop. Eye doctors recommend scheduling visits
at least every 1–2 years, but sooner if changes in visual acuity are noted. Doctors
recommend having hearing tested annually to help detect changes in hearing.
Vision Conditions
The most common vision conditions in older adulthood are cataracts, glau-
coma, macular degeneration, and diabetic retinopathy. As people age, the lens
of the eye thickens causing cloudy or distorted vision. This condition is known
as
cataracts
. Colors are not as bright, and details become blurry. For a while,
eyeglasses can help clarify vision. As the disease progresses, however, surgery
necessary. A simple laser surgical procedure can restore the lens to clearer
vision.is
In addition to biological changes that adults
experience as they age, such as physical decline,
there are also theories on aging. These theories
offer explanations as to why the body deteriorates
or functions differently from younger adulthood.
Following are three of the most common biological
theories on aging:
•
Cellular clock theory
—Cells need to divide
to rejuvenate and to perform effectively in body
functions. Cells can only divide about 75–80
times throughout life. When cells have trouble
dividing, the body cannot perform optimally.
Leonard Hayflick theorized that since cells have
a time limit in dividing, the maximum age of life
expectancy is between 120–125 years.
•
Free-radical
theory—Cells metabolize
and produce byproducts, or free radicals.
Free radicals
are unstable oxygen particles that
damage other cells and interfere with regular
body functions. Free radicals damage DNA,
which can lead to many diseases and disorders.
•
Hormonal stress theorybody
—The body’s reaction
to stress changes as the ages. Instead of
reacting quickly to stress, the body remains in
a state of stress longer than in previous stages
of the life cycle. As a result, the body’s immune
system weakens, which leads to higher risks for
illnesses and diseases.
Speaking Activitydiscuss
With a partner, the three biological
theories on aging. Of the three, does one sound
more likely than another?
Do you have another
theory for why aging occurs?
Health Connections
Biological
Theories
on
AgingAging Biological Theories on
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
Safety
Connections
Provides tips about how
to prevent accidents
and promote safety
throughout all stages of
the lifespan.
Cultural Connections
Learn about other countries and
cultures as related to the text
material. Activities reinforce
learning.
Health
Connections
Examine health issues
related to lifespan
development.