24 Part 1 Foundations of Human Development
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According A A g to t o Erikson Er Er ik so so n, n, personality p p er so o na na li li ty ty can c c c c an a an a develop d ev ev ev ev el e op op in i i n n ways wa w wa ys s ys ys that t t h ha a t t t t t are ar a e healthy e h e he al al al al l h h t th th th h th y y y y y y or or r o r or o or or o unhe u u u u u nh h nh n h h n nh nh n ea ea e ea ea ea e lthy. lt lt lt hy hy hy hy hy h .
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
Erik Erikson appreciated Freud’s work, but believed that both early and later
life experiences affect development. He felt that development is a social process
and people are motivated by their desire to connect with other people. Erikson
believed that all humans develop in eight stages, 2-2.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Developmental Stages
Stage Age Description
Trust versus
mistrust
Infancy
(birth to 1 year)
Babies learn about trust from their caregivers who meet their
needs including food, attention, physical contact, interaction, and
safety. When needs are not met, babies do not learn to trust others
and the world is perceived as unpredictable.
Autonomy
versus shame
and doubt
Toddler
(1 to 3 years)
Toddlers learn how to control their physical bodies by feeding,
toileting, dressing and undressing, and making strides in physical
development. As toddlers learn new skills, they become self-confident.
A lack of control or independence can make them feel like failures
and cause shame and doubt. Often, this is caused by caregivers pun-
ishing them for not doing things right.
Initiative versus
guilt
Early childhood
(3 through 5 years)
Through discovery and exploration, young children learn about the
world and their place in it. They learn what is real and what is imagi-
nary. They learn to take initiative for their place in the world. Criticism
and punishment can result in guilt for their own actions.
Industry versus
inferiority
Middle childhood
(6 through 12
years)
Children develop competencies both at school and at home. They
develop a sense of self and confidence by becoming competent in the
outside world. If children are compared negatively to others, feelings of
inferiority can surface.
Identity versus
identity
confusion
Adolescence
(13 through 18 years
or older)
Preteens and teens begin to understand and experiment with
a number of different roles. A task during this stage is to integrate
multiple roles such as sister, daughter, student, athlete, friend, and
employee into one consistent role. If a central or core identity is not
established, role confusion exists.
Intimacy versus
isolation
Early adulthood
(19 through 39
years)
During later adolescence and early adulthood, intimate relation-
ships form. These relationships should involve sharing one’s self emo-
tionally. Success in this stage is based on success in earlier stages.
Failure to establish intimacy results in emotional or psychological
isolation.
Generativity
versus
stagnation
Middle adulthood
(40 through 65
years)
Adults in midlife begin to place emphasis on assisting others
through sharing culture with the next generation. This can be done
in many ways including rearing children, teaching others in the work-
place or community, or passing on cultural values. A lack of genera-
tivity leads to stagnation.
Integrity versus
despair
Older adulthood
(66 years and
older)
In the last stage of life, adults review their life and reflect on its
meaning. If people are satisfied with the meaning of their life and
involvement, there is a sense of integrity. Without it, despair emerges
at the end of their life.