Chapter 2 Professional Ethics 23 Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. surgeons (Figure 2.3). In 1847, the American Medical Association (AMA) established the first national code of medical ethics, including some provisions taken directly from Percival’s work. Modern Codes of ­ Professional Ethics Since the 19th century, more health profes- sions have emerged and numerous ethical codes have been developed. The original rules in these codes are continuously reviewed and interpreted by the organizations that devel- oped them. As science and social values evolve, additional rules are developed in response to changing circumstances. The AMA’s Code of Medical Ethics, for example, has been modified several times since its adoption. These revisions have resulted in the AMA’s current code, which is essentially a one-page document of principles, with about 500 additional pages of annotated decisions and interpretations of the code (Figure 2.4). Individual practitioners must know the basic content of the applicable code. They must also remain aware of new interpretations and understand how to apply the latest changes to their daily practice. Codes of professional ethics have been developed for a large number of healthcare practitioners ranging from physicians and nurses to clinical laboratory scientists and medical assistants. Modern versions of the Hippocratic Oath have been developed and are used to initiate new physicians at a number of universities in the United States (Figure 2.5). Marked differences between the original and modern versions reflect the evolving roles of medicine and its relation- ship to natural death. For example, Hippocrates could not have antic- ipated the invention of mechanical life support systems or the role of physicians in decisions to continue or suspend such treatment. Recently, the number of healthcare professions has increased, creating many new types of practitioners. As a result, there has been an increase in the number of professional groups that need ethical standards to help guide their practice. All professions have one or more governing bodies whose function is to define, promote, oversee, support, and regulate the conduct of its members. In fact, the regulation and enforcement of ethics distinguishes a profession from other occupations. The nature and role of professional organizations is discussed in more detail in Chapter 4. Ethical rules provide guidance, and practitioners are duty bound by oaths or codes of ethics they have sworn to uphold. They are also bound to work within restraints established by their colleagues and the law via Wellcome Collection Figure 2.3 Thomas Percival, an English physician, wrote one of the first guides for medical ethics, even inspiring the AMA’s national code of ethics many years later.