Chapter 2 Professional Ethics 35 Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. For instance, if animals can be cloned, should humans be cloned to serve as spare parts for patients or as surrogate soldiers to prevent injury to draftees? Autonomy and beneficence might lead to a “yes” deci- sion. However, justice, autonomy, and beneficence might be in conflict on an individual level if the clone is identical to the original person or if wars are encouraged by the availability of greater numbers of disposable soldiers. Does exploring this type of issue reflect a violation of non-­ malfeasance because the practice does not exist at this point and ­ negative consequences have not been fully determined? It may soon be possible to extend human life indefinitely. Would you be assisting suicide if a patient refuses inexpensive and routine life-extending treatment? Would it be malfeasance if the practice will undoubtedly lead to world hunger due to overpopulation? Two basic responses have evolved to address such difficult issues both at the societal level and for ­ individual practitioners. Policy Response to Changing Standards of Care Some bioethical issues are beyond the scope of one practitioner acting alone. Certain issues, such as cloning, are addressed by the general pop- ulation, who adopt political solutions through the passage of legislation. For example, a number of states have banned human cloning. Somewhat related is the severe restriction the federal government has placed on stem cell research (Figure 2.11). Such large-scale issues may not be encountered during your individual daily practice, but they certainly influence the nature of the healthcare field in general. Medical Ethics Committees Medical ethics committees assist practitioners as they attempt to resolve ethical ­ dilemmas. These committees are generally advisory in nature and are established to provide assistance rather than authoritative directives. They are different from the boards or committees that establish ethical rules for specific areas of prac- tice. Those rules are established by professional associations, the government, and employers to encourage thorough consideration of complex clinical issues and to promote good decision making. Apple’s Eyes Studio/Shutterstock.com Figure 2.11 Stem cell research is an area in which legislators have responded to a technological advance that could affect healthcare.