Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 466 ■ ■ Wi-Fi runs in infrastructure mode but can also connect through ad hoc networking. Ad hoc devices cannot connect to another network and are used in situations where users need to be able to transmit data among themselves without an Internet connection or external network. However, ad hoc is not often recommended or necessary. ■ ■ Bluetooth enables mobile devices to share data via short-range, ad-hoc communication sessions. Bluetooth devices are often able to connect with minimal security, but device-specific options exist for enabling or limiting Bluetooth communication by establishing “trust devices.” ■ ■ Near-field communication (NFC) facilitates transmissions using electromagnetic radio fields between devices about four inches apart. It is relatively secure, but NFC can be vulnerable to frequency jamming, replay attacks, or man-in-the-middle attacks. ■ ■ ANT allows devices to communicate with each other wirelessly over short distances. It is like the low-energy version of Bluetooth. ANT is particularly vulnerable to jamming, DoS attacks, and intercepted data since encryption must be configured manually. ■ ■ Infrared (IR) conveys data through infrared radiation. It operates using line- of-sight methods and has a very limited range. These two aspects increase the security of using IR communication and combined with fast speed make it an attractive option for development of new technologies. ■ ■ Global Positioning Systems (GPSs) are communication methods that enable a GPS receiver to communicate and receive information from a GNSS. Security concerns for GPS range from privacy implications of locating people to the possibility of GPS coordinates being hacked in planes, boats, and cars. ■ ■ Radio-frequency identification (RFID) uses electromagnetic fields to automatically identify objects and track tags or smart labels that are attached to the objects. RFID includes narrowband and baseband. ■ ■ Zigbee is an alternative to Wi-Fi and Bluetooth and is often found in smart home devices. Some Zigbee security standards are based on features included by the manufacturer. The main security concern of a Zigbee device is theft of sensitive data. Wireless Vulnerabilities ■ ■ Due to the nature of wireless connectivity, it is inherently vulnerable to interception or attack. Vulnerabilities persist that can open a network to potential risk. ■ ■ Much of the vulnerabilities stems from the inability to control how Wi-Fi users configure their own personal devices. ■ ■ Important vulnerabilities to consider and monitor include deprecated protocols, MAC address filtering, and service set identifier (SSID) broadcasting. Threats to Wireless Security ■ ■ Transmissions on wireless networks do not follow set paths to and from their destinations. There is simply no way to protect radio signals from interception, unless in a high security facility. ■ ■ Wireless networks, such as Bluetooth systems, NFC devices, RFID systems, and WLANs, are relatively easy to set up and deploy, which makes them targets for hackers.