xiv Manual Transaxles ......................................................... 432 Transaxle Cases ................................................................ 433 Transaxle Gear and Synchronizer Operation .......... 433 Dual-Clutch Transmissions ..................................... 435 Transmission and Transaxle Shift Mechanisms ........................................................... 436 Manual Transmission and Transaxle Lubrication ....................................... 437 Speed Shifting ................................................................... 437 Chapter 21 Automatic Transmissions and Transaxles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .441 Automatic Transmissions and Transaxles .................................................................. 441 Automatic Transmission and Transaxle Components ...................................................................... 441 Planetary Gearsets ........................................................... 449 Holding Members............................................................. 452 Other Transmission and Transaxle Components ...................................................................... 457 Hydraulic Control System Components ................... 459 Computer-Controlled Shifting ..................................... 464 Shift Controls on Older Vehicles ................................. 465 CVT Transmissions ....................................................... 466 Manual Shift Programs ............................................... 466 Paddle Shifters .................................................................. 468 Automatic Transmission Fluid .............................. 468 Fluid Types ......................................................................... 468 Fluid Cooling ..................................................................... 469 Chapter 22 Axles and Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . .475 Rear-Wheel Drive Shafts ............................................ 475 Drive Shafts ........................................................................ 475 Universal Joint ................................................................... 476 Slip Yoke .............................................................................. 477 How the Wheels Drive the Vehicle .............................. 478 Hotchkiss Drive ................................................................ 478 Universal Joint Can Cause Fluctuating Shaft Speed ................................................. 479 Constant Velocity (CV) Axles .................................. 480 CV Axle Shafts ................................................................... 481 Types of CV Joints ............................................................ 482 CV Joint Boots ................................................................... 484 Rear-Wheel-Drive Axle Assemblies .................... 484 Solid Axles .......................................................................... 486 Independent Axles ........................................................... 487 Differential Carrier .......................................................... 488 Ring and Drive Pinion ..................................................... 488 Differential ......................................................................... 489 Limited-Slip Differential ................................................ 491 Gear Ratio ........................................................................... 495 Axle Lubrication ............................................................... 496 Transaxle Differential Assembly ........................... 496 Transaxle Operation ........................................................ 496 Four-Wheel-Drive Front Drive Axles ................. 498 Front Axle Steering Provision ...................................... 498 Chapter 23 Four-Wheel Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 Purposes of Four-Wheel Drive ............................... 503 Four-Wheel-Drive Components ............................ 503 Four-Wheel-Drive Designs ....................................... 503 Transfer Case ..................................................................... 504 Preventing Windup ......................................................... 505 Full-Time Transfer Case ................................................. 508 Part-Time Transfer Case ................................................ 508 Front Axle Controls ......................................................... 510 Transfer Case Lubrication ............................................. 511 Locking Hubs ..................................................................... 511 Chapter 24 Brakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .515 Hydraulic Basics .............................................................. 516 Air Is Compressible, Liquids Are Not ......................... 516 Liquids Can Transmit Motion and Force .................. 517 Liquids Can Increase Force ........................................... 517 Liquids Can Decrease Force ......................................... 517 Hydraulic Principles in Vehicle Brake Systems ....... 518 Brake Fluid ......................................................................... 518 Braking Ratio ..................................................................... 519 Master Cylinder ............................................................... 519 Master Cylinder Construction ..................................... 520 Dual Brake System ........................................................... 522 Master Cylinder Operation ........................................... 523 Quick Take-Up Master Cylinder .................................. 525 Brake System Hydraulic Control Valves ........... 526 Proportioning Valve ........................................................ 526 Disc Brake Metering Valve............................................. 527 Pressure Differential Switch ......................................... 527 Combination Valve .......................................................... 528 Brake Lines .......................................................................... 528 Brake Hoses ........................................................................ 528