xv Disc Brake Calipers........................................................ 529 Caliper Operation ............................................................ 529 Wheel Cylinders .............................................................. 529 Wheel Cylinder Construction ...................................... 530 Wheel Cylinder Operation ............................................ 531 Hydraulic System Failure ............................................... 531 Hydraulic System Must Be Free of Air ........................ 532 Brake Friction Members ............................................. 532 Coefficient of Friction ..................................................... 532 Friction Linings ................................................................ 533 Brake Fade .......................................................................... 533 Disc Brake Assembly..................................................... 533 Brake Pad Construction ................................................. 533 Backing Plate ..................................................................... 535 Drum Brake Assembly ................................................. 535 Brake Shoe Assembly ...................................................... 535 Brake Drum ........................................................................ 535 Drum Brake Operation ................................................... 536 Drum Brake Arrangement ............................................. 536 Self-Adjusting Brakes ...................................................... 537 Parking Brakes .................................................................. 538 Power Brake Systems .................................................... 540 Vacuum-Assisted Power Booster ......................... 540 Vacuum Power Booster Construction ....................... 540 Vacuum Power Booster Operation ............................. 540 Tandem Booster ............................................................... 543 Vacuum Reservoir ............................................................ 544 Booster Failure .................................................................. 544 Hydraulic Pressure-Operated Power Booster ................................................................... 545 Hydraulic Power Booster Operation .......................... 545 Hydraulic Accumulator .................................................. 546 Electric Power Booster ................................................ 546 Anti-Lock Brake Systems (ABS) ............................ 547 Anti-Lock Brake System Components ....................... 547 Anti-Lock Brake System Operation ............................ 548 Traction Control Systems .......................................... 549 Electronic Stability Control ..................................... 550 Hill Holder .......................................................................... 551 Regenerative Braking ................................................... 551 Brake Lights ........................................................................ 551 Chapter 25 Suspension Systems. . . . . . . . . . .557 The Need for a Suspension System ..................... 557 Sprung Weight .................................................................. 558 Unsprung Weight ............................................................. 558 Suspension System Components ......................... 558 Vehicle Frames .................................................................. 558 Springs ................................................................................. 558 Shock Absorbers ............................................................... 562 Control Arms and Struts ................................................ 565 Ball Joints ............................................................................ 567 Stabilizer Bars ................................................................... 567 Front Suspension Systems ........................................ 568 Conventional Independent Front Suspension ........ 569 MacPherson Strut Front Suspension ......................... 572 Solid Axle Front Suspension ......................................... 572 Rear Suspension Systems .......................................... 573 Solid Rear Axle Suspensions ......................................... 573 Independent Rear Suspensions ................................... 574 Suspension Lubrication .............................................. 574 Automatic Level Control............................................ 575 Automatic Level Control Operation ........................... 577 Air Compressor ................................................................. 577 Height Control Valve ....................................................... 577 Computerized Ride Control Systems ................ 578 Roll Control During Turns ............................................ 579 Chapter 26 Steering Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . 585 Steering System ................................................................ 585 Spindle and Steering Arm Assembly .......................... 585 Steering Linkage ............................................................... 588 Steering Wheel, Steering Shaft, and Steering Gear ............................................................ 592 Power Steering .................................................................. 597 Road Feel ............................................................................ 598 Power Steering Components ........................................ 598 Electric Power Steering Systems ................................. 605 Chapter 27 Wheels and Tires . . . . . . . . . . . . .611 Wheels.................................................................................... 611 Steel Wheels ...................................................................... 611 Custom Wheels ................................................................. 613 Wheel Rim Size ................................................................. 613 Wheel Lug Bolts and Nuts ............................................. 613 Wheel Hubs and Bearings ......................................... 614 Wheel Bearings ................................................................. 614 Bearing Retaining Devices ............................................ 615 Tires ......................................................................................... 616 Tire Construction ............................................................. 616