xiv CHAPTER 9 The Complex Carbohydrates: Starches, Cellulose, Gums, and Pectins. . . . . . . . . . . 156 The Types of Complex Carbohydrates. . . . . . . . 157 Functions of Complex Carbohydrates in Food Preparation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Physical Properties of Starch and Liquid Mixtures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Thickening Sauces with Starch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Nutritional Impact of Complex Carbohydrates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENT: Characteristics of Starch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 CHAPTER 10 Lipids: Nature’s Flavor Enhancers. . . . . . . . 174 Chemical Structure of Lipids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Categories of Lipids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 Physical Characteristics of Lipids . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Functions of Lipids in Food Preparation . . . . . . 183 Lipids in Your Diet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 CHAPTER 10 EXPERIMENT: Fats in Dropped Cookies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 CHAPTER 11 Proteins: Amino Acids and Peptides . . . . . . 196 The Structure of Protein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Denaturation of Proteins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Functions of Protein in Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Cooking High-Protein Foods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 The Nutritional Contributions of Proteins. . . . . 211 CHAPTER 11 EXPERIMENT: Working with Egg White Foams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 CHAPTER 12 Enzymes: The Protein Catalyst . . . . . . . . . . 220 Enzymes Are Specialized Catalysts. . . . . . . . . . . 221 Factors That Affect Enzyme Activity. . . . . . . . . . 224 Enzymes and the Food Supply. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Enzymes’ Role in Digestion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .⤀ 233 CHAPTER 12 EXPERIMENT: Proteolytic Enzymes in Fruit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 UNIT 4 Food Chemistry: The Microcomponents . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Under the Microscope: Careers in Food Science Food Science Technician. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Interview From Bitter to Sweet: Dr. Lisa L. Oehrl. . . . . . . 239 CHAPTER 13 The Micronutrients: Vitamins and Minerals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Vitamins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Minerals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Effects of Processing and Preservation. . . . . . . . 250 Vitamins and Minerals as Food Additives. . . . . 253 Preserving Vitamins and Minerals at Home. . . 254 Vitamin and Mineral Supplements. . . . . . . . . . . 254 CHAPTER 13 EXPERIMENT: Effects of Calcium on Coagulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 CHAPTER 14 Phytochemicals: The Other Food Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 Phytochemicals and Their Categories. . . . . . . . . 261 Phytochemicals and Food Processing. . . . . . . . . 271 Potential Health Benefits of Phytochemicals. . . 274 Phytochemicals and Epigenetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 CHAPTER 14 EXPERIMENT: Effect of pH Changes on Flavonoids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 CHAPTER 15 Food Analogs: Substitute Ingredients . . . . . 284 Functions of Analogs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Sugar Substitutes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Fat Substitutes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Salt Substitutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Dairy Substitutes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 CHAPTER 15 EXPERIMENT: Fat Replacers in Muffins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 CHAPTER 16 Additives: Producing Desired Characteristics in Foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 What Is a Food Additive? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Regulating Additive Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Functions of Additives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Secondary Direct Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 Balancing Benefits and Risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 CHAPTER 16 EXPERIMENT: Pectin as a Texturizer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322