Chapter 8 Behavior and Characteristics of Manufacturing Materials 125
materials at a lower cost from offshore providers.
Surprisingly, they may find the cost of transportation
of the material to the manufacturing plant makes the
final cost of the material greater than it would be if
the material were purchased locally.
Other costs should also be considered when
selecting materials. One of these is storage. Any extra
materials must be stored before use. This is why mate-
rials should be purchased just before they are needed,
and preferably from a reliable source. This process,
called just-in-time, means that less money is tied up
storing and protecting materials, replacing damaged
items, and disposing of out-of-date materials.
Another hidden cost in materials is waste. Waste
materials are those that are lost or consumed in the
manufacturing process, but do not end up as material
present in the completed product. Examples of waste are
materials on a casting that are trimmed from the prod-
uct. Material waste also results from overproduction
and product defects. Over­ oduction actually reduces
product quality and productivity. Making more than
can immediately be sold creates work-in-process inven-
tory (WIP) that must be stored. It also forces firms to
require excessive lead times for activities to occur. This
reduces the manufacturing plant’s ability to reduce
defects and respond to changing market conditions.
Materials that are purchased for manufacture
but not used are referred to as surplus or excess mate-
rials, not waste. Waste is something that can drive the
cost of a product sky high. If the material is difficult
to form, fabricate, separate, condition, or finish, there
will likely be more material waste. Materials that
are difficult to process should be avoided unless the
material offers unique performance characteristics.
Life Cycle Analysis
The life cycle of materials is sometimes referred
to as cradle to grave. This term calls attention to the
fact that materials can be reliably and safely used in a
product for a limited time before they may eventually
fail and cause the product to be taken out of service.
This failure is due not only to the material itself, but
also to the way the product is used, the extent to
which the product is used, conditions impacting the
product, and the product’s design.
Life cycle analysis (LCA) is an important process
that is critical to lean and green manufacturing. LCA
is used to determine the environmental impact of
the product from its manufacture through its time
in service until it is taken out of service, recycled,
or disposed of as waste. Factors taken into account
during LCA include the design of the product,
extraction of raw materials, production of materials,
production of parts, assembly of the product, use of
the product, and the product’s final disposal. The
methods used to conduct a life cycle analysis are part
of ISO 14000 environmental management standards
14040 and 14044.
LCA consists of the following phases:
• Definition of goals and scope
• Inventory of all inputs and outputs
• Assessment of potential impacts
• Interpretation of data and impact assessment
results
The ISO 14001 standard provides guidelines
for designing, applying, and improving an environ-
mental management system (EMS). According to
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, an EMS
consists of the processes and practices used by an
organization to reduce its environmental impacts
and increase its operating efficiency. An EMS has
a defined organizational structure and includes
planning activities that meet environmental and
organizational goals and objectives. The management
system has all the organizational elements necessary
to assign responsibilities to implement its plans
and provide the necessary resources for achieving
its goals. Documenting and assessing the systems
performance is also an integral part of an EMS. Most
organizations build the EMS into their organization
management structure.
Environmental and Safety
Aspects of Materials
The federal Hazard Communication Rule (CFR
1910.1200), also known as the Hazcom Standard or
Right-to-Know Law, was first introduced by the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) in 1983. Industry has been obligated to
comply with this standard since 1988. The OSHA
law requires employers to identify hazardous
chemicals in the workplace and effectively com-
municate information and train employees how to
recognize, use, and handle hazardous chemicals or
products. This includes commonly used products
such as diesel fuel, lubricants, pesticides, and a
wide range of products used and produced within
the manufacturing plants.